Examining the Impact of Bullying on West African Adolescents' Mental Health: The Role of Peers and Parental Support
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18533/gjhgfk94Keywords:
bullying, Adolescents, parental support, mental health, peer victimization, peers, peer realtions, friendsAbstract
Bullying presents a substantial threat to adolescents’ mental health. Yet, despite its status as a major global health issue, research in this area has largely been limited to Western cultures. This is unfortunate since approximately 90% of children and adolescents live in nations classified as low- and middle-income. To increase global representation, the current study utilized cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) and examined the relationship between being bullied, number of friends, and the association with vulnerability to mental health issues. Additionally, the moderating effect of parental support on the relationship between peer help and vulnerability to mental health issues was assessed. The participants were 2,536 adolescents from Benin, West Africa. The results of structural equation modeling suggested that being bullied was associated with increased vulnerability to mental health problems, whereas having more friends was associated with less vulnerability. Furthermore, the model depicting the buffering effect of parental support explained a significant portion of variability in vulnerability to mental health issues. Hence, it was inferred that, at low levels of peer help, parental support was associated with a decrease in vulnerability to mental health issues. The discussion offers future directions.
References
Aboagye, R. G., Seidu, A. A., Adu, C., Cadri, A., Mireku, D. O., & Ahinkorah, B. O. (2021). Interpersonal violence among in-school adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: Assessing the prevalence and predictors from the Global School-based health survey. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100929
Adams, R. E., Santo, J. B., & Bukowski, W. M. (2011). The presence of a best friend buffers the effects of negative experiences. Developmental Psychology, 47(6), 1786–1791. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025401
Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63, 602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003066X.63.7.602
Bass, E. C., Saldarriaga, L., Cunha, J., Chen, B. B., Santo, J. B., & Bukowski, W. M. (2018). A cross-cultural analysis of the relations of physical and relational aggression with peer victimization. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(1), 132–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416677846
Biswas, T., Scott, J. G., Munir, K., Thomas, H. J., Huda, M. M., Hasan, M. M., ... & Mamun, A. A. (2020). Global variation in the prevalence of bullying victimisation amongst adolescents: Role of peer and parental supports. EClinicalMedicine, 20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100276
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-eontrol and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hills-dale: Erlbaum
Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349– 361. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349
Bonanno, R. A., & Hymel, S. (2013). Cyberbullying and internalizing difficulties: Above and beyond the impact of traditional forms of bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9937-1
Boulton, M.J., & Underwood, K. (1992). Bully/victim problems among middle school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1992.tb01000.x
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513
Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Contextual influences on adolescent development (pp. 75–103). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Chen, L. P., Murad, M. H., Paras, M. L., Colbenson, K. M., Sattler, A. L., Goranson, E. N., ... & Zirakzadeh, A. (2018). Sexual abuse and lifetime diagnosis of psychiatric disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 93(10), 1415–1424. https://doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2009.0583
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38(5), 300–314.
Cohen, S. (1992). Models of the support process. In H. O. F. Veil & U. Baumann (Eds.), The meaning and measurement of social support (pp. 109–124). New York: Hemisphere.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310
Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Turner, R. B., & Doyle, W. J. (2015). Does hugging provide stress-buffering social support? A study of susceptibility to upper respiratory infection and illness. Psychological science, 26(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614559284
Cole, D. A., Zelkowitz, R. L., Nick, E., Martin, N. C., Roeder, K. M., Sinclair-McBride, K., & Spinelli, T. (2016). Longitudinal and incremental relation of cybervictimization to negative self-cognitions and depressive symptoms in young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 1321–1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0123-7
Cortina, M. A., Sodha, A., Fazel, M., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2012). Prevalence of child mental health problems in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(3), 276–281. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.592. PMID: 22393184
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66(3), 710–722. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131945
Devries, K., Watts, C., Yoshihama, M., Kiss, L., Schraiber, L. B., Deyessa, N., ... & WHO Multi-Country Study Team. (2011). Violence against women is strongly associated with suicide attempts: evidence from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women. Social Science & Medicine, 73(1), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.05.006
Dijkstra, J. K., & Veenstra, R. (2011). Peer relations. Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2, 255–259. New York: Academic Press. https://doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-373915-5.00079-6
Domitrovich, C. E., & Bierman, Κ. L. (2001). Parenting practices and child social adjustment: Multiple pathways of influence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 235–263.
Doyle, A. B., & Markiewicz, D. (2005). Parenting, marital conflict and adjustment from early-to mid-adolescence: Mediated by adolescent attachment style? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 97–110.
Elledge, L. C., Smith, D. E., Kilpatrick, C. T., McClain, C. M., & Moore, T. M. (2019). The associations between bullying victimization and internalizing distress, suicidality, and substance use in Jamaican adolescents: The moderating role of parental involvement. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(7), 2202–2220. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518786804
Essau, C. A. (2003). Comorbidity of depressive disorders among adolescents in community and clinical settings. Psychiatry Research, 117(3), 361–367.
Feng, Y., & Hancock, G. R. (2022). Model-based incremental validity. Psychological Methods, 27(6), 1039–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000342
Fisher, J., Mello, M. C. D., Patel, V., Rahman, A., Tran, T., Holton, S., & Holmes, W. (2012). Prevalence and determinants of common perinatal mental disorders in women in low-and lower-middle-income countries: A systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90, 139–149. https://doi:10.2471/BLT.11.091850
Fleming, T., Merry, S., Stasiak, K., Hopkins, S., Patolo, T., Ruru, S., ... & Goodyear-Smith, F. (2019). The importance of user segmentation for designing digital therapy for adolescent mental health: findings from scoping processes. JMIR mental health, 6(5).
Garber, J., & Flynn, C. (2001). Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(4), 353–376. https://doi.org/10.1023/
a:1005530402239.
Geoffroy, M.-C., Boivin, M., Arseneault, L., Renaud, J., Perret, L. C., Turecki, G., Michel, G., Salla, J., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R. E., & Côté, S. M. (2018). Childhood trajectories of peer victimization and prediction of mental health outcomes in midadolescence: A longitudinal population-based study. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 190(2), E37–E43. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.170219
Gini, G., Marino, C., Pozzoli, T., & Holt, M. (2018). Associations between peer victimization, perceived teacher unfairness, and adolescents' adjustment and well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 56–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.09.005
Gittins, C. B., & Hunt, C. (2019). Parental behavioural control in adolescence: How does it affect self-esteem and self-criticism?. Journal of adolescence, 73, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.004
Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Hogan, S., Nada-Raja, S., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2014). Suicide attempt in young people: A signal for long-term health care and social needs. JAMA psychiatry, 71(2), 119–127. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.2803
Grills, A. E., & Ollendick, T. H. (2002). Peer victimization, global self-worth, and anxiety in middle school children. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology, 31(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3101_08
Hamilton, J. L., Shapero, B. G., Stange, J. P., Hamlat, E. J., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2013). Emotional maltreatment, peer victimization, and depressive versus anxiety symptoms during adolescence: Hopelessness as a mediator. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42(3), 332–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.777916
Hanish, L. D., & Guerra, N. G. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of patterns of adjustment
following peer victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 69–89.
Hartup, W. W. (2009). Critical issues and theoretical viewpoints. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 3–19). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hawker, D. S., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(4), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00629
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 1–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
Hodges, E. V., Malone, M. J., & Perry, D. G. (1997). Individual risk and social risk as interacting determinants of victimization in the peer group. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1032– 1039.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Jonsson, J. O., & Östberg, V. (2010). Studying young people’s level of living: The Swedish child-LNU. Child Indicators Research, 3, 47–64.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-009-9060-8
Judd, C. M., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Muller, D. (2014). Mediation and moderation. Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology, 2, 653–676.
Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (1996). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side. Psychology Press.
Källmén, H., & Hallgren, M. (2021). Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: A repeated cross-sectional study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15,1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00425-y
Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Üstün, T. B. (2007a). Age of onset of mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current opinion in psychiatry, 20(4), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32816ebc8c
Kessler, R. C., Angermeyer, M., Anthony, J. C., De Graaf, R. O. N., Demyttenaere, K., Gasquet, I., ... & Üstün, T. B. (2007b). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization. World Psychiatry, 6(3), 168. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2174588/
Khurana, A., Bleakley, A., Jordan, A. B., & Romer, D. (2015). The protective effects of parental monitoring and internet restriction on adolescents’ risk of online harassment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(5), 1039–1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0242-4
Kim, S. S., Craig, W. M., King, N., Bilz, L., Cosma, A., Molcho, M., Qirjako, G., Gaspar De Matos, M., Augustine, L., Šmigelskas, K., & Pickett, W. (2022). Bullying, mental health, and the moderating role of supportive adults: A cross-national analysis of adolescents in 45 countries. International Journal of Public Health, 67, Article e1604264. https://doi.org/10.3389/ijph.2022.1604264
Kline, R. (2005). Principles & practice of structural equation modelling. The Guilford Press.
Kline, R. B., & Santor, D. A. (1999). Principles & practice of structural equation modelling. Canadian Psychology, 40(4), 381.
Koyanagi, A., Oh, H., Carvalho, A. F., Smith, L., Haro, J. M., Vancampfort, D., ... & DeVylder, J. E. (2019). Bullying victimization and suicide attempt among adolescents aged 12–15 years from 48 countries. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(9), 907–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.10.018
Låftman, S. B., Fransson, E., Modin, B., & Östberg, V. (2017). National data study showed that adolescents living in poorer households and with one parent were more likely to be bullied. Acta paediatrica, 106(12), 2048–2054. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13997
Lewis, M. L., & Osofsky, J. D. (1997). Violent cities, violent streets: Children draw their neighborhoods. In I. J. Osofsky (Ed.), Children in a Violent Society (pp. 277–322). New York: Guilford Press.
Lopez, C., & DuBois, D. L. (2005). Peer victimization and rejection: Investigation of an integrative model of effects on emotional, behavioral, and academic adjustment in early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_3
Machtinger, E. L., Haberer, J. E., Wilson, T. C., & Weiss, D. S. (2012). Recent trauma is associated with antiretroviral failure and HIV transmission risk behavior among HIV-positive women and female-identified transgenders. AIDS and Behavior, 16, 2160–2170.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-012-0158-5
Matthews, R. A., Pineault, L., & Hong, Y. H. (2022). Normalizing the use of single-item measures: Validation of the single-item compendium for organizational psychology. Journal of Business and Psychology, 37(4), 639–673.
Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.06.007
Moore, S. E., Norman, R. E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H. J., Sly, P. D., & Scott, J. G. (2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World journal of psychiatry, 7(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60
Muthén, L. K.., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus user's guide (7.2). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nakamoto, J., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Is peer victimization associated with academic achievement? A meta‐analytic review. Social development, 19(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00539.x
National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Nguyen, K. H., Kress, H., Atuchukwu, V., Onotu, D., Swaminathan, M., Ogbanufe, O., ... & Sumner, S. A. (2021). Disclosure of sexual violence among girls and young women aged 13 to 24 years: Results from the violence against children surveys in Nigeria and Malawi. Journal of interpersonal violence, 36(3-4), NP2188-2204NP. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518757225
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Oswald, S. H., Heil, K., & Goldbeck, L. (2010). History of maltreatment and mental health problems in foster children: A review of the literature. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35(5), 462–472. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsp114
Overbeek, G., Zeevalkink, H., Vermulst, A., & Scholte, R. H. (2010). Peer victimization, self‐ esteem, and ego resilience types in adolescents: A prospective analysis of person‐context interactions. Social Development, 19(2), 270–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9507.2008.00535.x
Paul, S., Smith, P. K., & Blumberg, H. H. (2012). Comparing student perceptions of coping strategies and school interventions in managing bullying and cyberbullying incidents. Pastoral Care in Education, 30(2), 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2012.679957
Patel, V., Flisher, A. J., Hetrick, S., & McGorry, P. (2007). Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge. The Lancet, 369(9569), 1302–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60368-7
Pellegrini, A. D., Bartini, M., & Brooks, F. (1999). School bullies, victims, and aggressive victims: Factors relating to group affiliation and victimization in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.216
Pierce, G. R., Sarason, B. R., Sarason, I. G., Joseph, H. J., & Henderson, C. A. (1996). Conceptualizing and assessing social support in the context of the family. In G. R. Pierce, B. R. Sarason, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of social support and the family (pp. 3–24). New York: Plenum Press.
Rigby, K. E. N. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well‐being. Journal of Adolescence, 23(1), 57–68
https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1999.0289
Roest, A. M., Martens, E. J., de Jonge, P., & Denollet, J. (2010). Anxiety and risk of incident coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 56(1), 38–46. www.jacc.org/doi/abs/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.03.034
Rueger, S. Y., & Jenkins, L. N. (2014). Effects of peer victimization on psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(1), 77. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000036
Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Developmental systems and psychopathology. Development and psychopathology, 12(3), 297–312. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400003035
Santo, J. B., Charlotte Bass, E., Stella-Lopez, L., & Bukowski, W. M. (2017). Contextual influences on the relations between physical and relational aggression and peer victimization. School Psychology International, 38(1), 42–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/014303431667865
Santo, J. B., Martin‐Storey, A., Recchia, H., & Bukowski, W. M. (2018). Self‐continuity moderates the association between peer victimization and depressed affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(4), 875–887. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12372
Sechrest, L. (1963). Incremental validity: A recommendation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 23(1), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446302300113
Shear, B. R., & Zumbo, B. D. (2013). False positives in multiple regression: Unanticipated consequences of measurement error in the predictor variables. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73(5), 733–756. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413487738
Slee, P. T., & Rigby, K. (1993). Australian school children's self appraisal of interpersonal relations: The bullying experience. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 23(4), 273–282.
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 49(4), 376-385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x
Spitz, R. A. (1946). Anaclitic depression: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood II. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 313–342.
Stadler, C., Feifel, J., Rohrmann, S., Vermeiren, R., & Poustka, F. (2010). Peer-victimization and mental health problems in adolescents: Are parental and school support protective? Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41(4), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-010-0174-5
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. Oxford, UK: Norton.
Takizawa, R., Maughan, B., & Arseneault, L. (2014). Adult health outcomes of childhood bullying victimization: evidence from a five-decade longitudinal British birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(7), 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101401
Thalmayer, A. G., Toscanelli, C., & Arnett, J. J. (2021). The neglected 95% revisited: Is American psychology becoming less American? American Psychologist, 76(1), 116. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/amp0000622
Thompson, R., Zuroff, D. C., & Hindi, E. (2012). Relationships and traumatic events as predictors of depressive styles in high-risk youth. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(4), 474–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.017
Ttofi, M. M., Bowes, L., Farrington, D. P., & Losel, F. (2014). Protective factors interrupting the continuity from school bullying to later internalizing and externalizing problems: A systematic review of prospective longitudinal studies. Journal of School Violence, 13(1), 5– 38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2013.857345
van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Zwaanswijk, W., Gini, G., & Vedder, P. (2018). Does peer victimization predict low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem predict peer victimization? Meta-analyses on longitudinal studies. Developmental Review, 49, 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.07.001
Yang, J. Y., McDonald, K. L., & Seo, S. (2022). Attributions about peer victimization in US and Korean adolescents and associations with internalizing problems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(10), 2018–2032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01622-4
Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). Differentiating youth who are bullied from other victims of peer-aggression: The importance of differential power and repetition. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 55(2), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.02.009
Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Westfall, J., & Yarkoni, T. (2016). Statistically controlling for confounding constructs is harder than you think. PLoS ONE, 11(3), e0152719. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152719
Wolke, D., Woods, S., Bloomfield, L., & Karstadt, L. (2000). The association between direct and relational bullying and behaviour problems among primary school children. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(8), 989–1002. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00687
Wolke, D., Copeland, W. E., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Impact of bullying in childhood on adult health, wealth, crime, and social outcomes. Psychological Science, 24(10), 1958–1970. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613481608
World Health Organization. (2017). More than 1.2 million adolescents die every year, nearly all preventable. World Health Organization.
Wu, L., Zhang, D., Su, Z., & Hu, T. (2015). Peer victimization among children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review of links to emotional maladjustment. Clinical pediatrics, 54(10), 941–955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0009922814567873
Zhou, W., Ouyang, F., Nergui, O. E., Bangura, J. B., Acheampong, K., Massey, I. Y., & Xiao, S. (2020). Child and adolescent mental health policy in low-and middle-income countries: challenges and lessons for policy development and implementation. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00150
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Sheri McVay, Jon Santo, Oluronke Ajayi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
