Examining the Relationships Between Emotional Well-Being, Social Well-being, Self-Esteem, and Home Environment in a Sample of Children and Adolescents with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18533/b7xac578Keywords:
emotional well-being, self-esteem, intellectual and developmental disabilities, familyAbstract
Emotional well-being (EWB), self-esteem, social well-being, and home environment are closely interconnected in child development literature, yet these relationships remain understudied among children and adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). The present study examined the extent to which self-esteem, social well-being (friends), and home environment predicted EWB in a sample of children and adolescents with IDD, ages 5–21. Data were collected at two time points during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of the multiple regression analyses revealed that at Time 1, both self-esteem and home environment were significant positive predictors of EWB, whereas at Time 2, only home environment remained a significant predictor. More importantly, across both time points, this construct emerged as the strongest predictor of EWB, controlling for self-esteem and friends. These findings underscore the crucial role of family functioning in fostering EWB among individuals with IDD. Contrary to theoretical expectations, friends were not predictive of EWB, suggesting that the social experiences of children with IDD may differ from those of their neurotypical peers. The results highlight the importance of strengthening family bonds to support the emotional well-being of individuals with IDD, also underscoring the need for future research in this area.
References
Adler, A., Unanue, W., Osin, E., Ricard, M., Alkire, S., & Seligman, M. (2017). Psychological wellbeing. In Happiness: Transforming the development landscape, (pp. 118–155). Bhutan: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Alhuzimi, T. (2021). Stress and emotional wellbeing of parents due to change in routine for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at home during COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 108, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103822
Bal, S., Crombez, G., Van Oost, P., & Debourdeaudhuij, I. (2003). The role of social support in well-being and coping with self-reported stressful events in adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(12), 1377–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.06.002
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2018). Revisiting our reappraisal of the (surprisingly few) benefits of high self-esteem. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 137–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617701185
Bentenuto, A., Mazzoni, N., Giannotti, M, Venuti, P., & de Falco., S. (2020). Psychological impact of Covid-19 pandemic in Italian families of children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 109, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103840
Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C. L., & Davies, F. (2007). The impact of hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents’ school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.001
Cooper, H., Okamura, L., & Gurka, V. (1992). Social activity and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 13(5), 573–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90198-X
Dagnan, D. (2008). Psychological and emotional health and well‐being of people with intellectual disabilities. Tizard Learning Disability Review, 13(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1108/13595474200800002
Diener, E. & Lucas, R. E. (1999). Personality and subjective well-being. In Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.), Well-being: Foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 213–229). Russell Sage Foundation, New York.
Diener, E. & Ryan, K. (2009). Subjective well-being: A general overview. South African Journal of Psychology, 39(4), 391–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630903900402
Diener, E. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. American Psychological Society, 13(1), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00415
Galderisi, S., Heinz, A., Kastrup, M., Beezhold, J., & Sartorius, N. (2015). Toward a new definition of mental health. World Psychiatry, 14(2), 231–233.
Gallagher, E. N. & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2008). Social support and emotional intelligence as predictors of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7), 1551–1561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.011
Guralnick, M. J. (1998). Effectiveness of early intervention for vulnerable children: A developmental perspective. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 102(4), 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(1998)102<0319:eoeifv>2.0.co;2
Guralnick, M. J. (2005). Early intervention for children with intellectual disabilities: Current knowledge and future prospects. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 18(4), 313–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2005.00270.x
Guralnick, M. J. & Hammond, M. A. (1999). Sequential analysis of the social play of young children with mild developmental delays. Journal of Early Intervention, 22(3), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381519902200307
Hammer, D., Melhuish, E., & Howard, S. J. (2018). Antecedents and consequences of social–emotional development: A longitudinal study of academic achievement. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/arc0000034
Hong, S. -Y., Steed, E. A., Meyer, L. E., & Acar, İ. H. (2022). The development of social competence in children with disabilities. In P.K. Smith & C.H. Hart (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development (pp. 766–783). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119679028.ch41
Kim, I. & Ahn, J. (2021). The effect of changes in physical self-concept through participation in exercise on changes in self-esteem and mental well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), Article 5224. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105224
Kong, F., Li, W., Wang, Q. & Zhen, Z. (2023). Incremental well-being beliefs and well-being in adolescents: The mediating role of self-esteem and optimism. Child Indicators Research, 16, 533–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-022-09994-6
Krauss, A. & Schellenberg, C. (2022). ADHD symptoms and health-related quality of life of adolescents and young adults. European Journal of Health Psychology, 29(4), 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000104
Leary, M. R. (2005). Sociometer theory and the pursuit of relational value: Getting to the root of self-esteem. European Review of Social Psychology, 16(1), 75–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280540000007
Lu, L. (1999). Personal or environmental causes of happiness: A longitudinal analysis. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549909598363
Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 616–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.616
McCollum, J. A. & Chen, Y. -J. (2003). Parent-child interaction when babies have down syndrome: The perceptions of Taiwanese mothers. Infants and Young Children, 16(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200301000-00004
Mulderji, K. J. (1996). Research into the life world of physically disabled children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 22(5), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.1996.tb00433.x
Musetti, A., Eboli, G., Cavallini, F., & Corsano, P. (2019). Social relationships, self-esteem, and loneliness in adolescents with learning disabilities. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 16(4), 165–172.
National Institutes of Health (2021). About intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs). Retrieved September 30, 2025, from https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/idds/conditioninfo
Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2022). Is high self-esteem beneficial? Revisiting a classic question. American Psychologist, 77(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000922
Park, C.L., Kubzansky, L.D., Chafouleas, S.M., Davidson, R. J., Keltner, D., Parsafar, P., Conwell, Y., Martin, M. Y., Hamner, J., & Wang, K. H. (2002). Emotional well-being: What it is and why it matters. Affective Science, 4(1), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0
Rahmawati, N. R., Handarini, D. M., & Triyono, T. (2017). Relation of emotional intelligence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being students of state senior high school. Jurnal Pendidikan Humaniora, 5(1), 40–46. https://doi.org/10.17977/um030v5i12017p040
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books.
Rosenberg, M., Schooler, C., & Schoenbach, C. (1989). Self-esteem and adolescent problems: Modeling reciprocal effects. American Psychological Review, 54(6), 1004–1018. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095720
Rosenberg M., Schooler, C., Schoenbach, C., & Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific self-esteem: Different concepts, different outcomes. American Psychological Review, 60(1), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096350
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2017). Theories of Personality. Cengage.
Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-Concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46(3), 407–441. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170010
Sim, B., & Diener, E. (2018). Accounts of psychological and emotional well-being for policy purposes. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20231
Skok, A., Harvey, D., & Reddihough, D. (2006) Perceived stress, perceived social support, and wellbeing among mothers of school‐aged children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 31(1), 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250600561929
Smogorzewska, J, Szumski, G, & Grygiel, P. (2019). Theory of mind development in school environment: A case of children with mild intellectual disability learning in inclusive and special education classrooms. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 32(5), 1241–1254. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12616
Thompson, R. A. (1988). Introduction. In Thompson, R. A. (Ed.), Socioemotional development, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 36, pp. i-ix). Lincoln, NE, US: University of Nebraska Press.
Weiten, W., Dunn, D. S., & Hammer, E. Y. (2017). Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century (12th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A. (2019). Prevalence and trends of developmental disabilities among children in the United States: 2009–2017. Pediatrics, 144(4), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0811
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Hannah Lydiatt, Shaghayegh Sheri McVay, Dr. Jonathan Santo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
